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    Title: 兒童醫療自主之探討-以病童臨床經驗出發
    Patient autonomy of children - from the clinical experiences on pediatric patients
    Authors: 張濱璿
    Chang, Pin Hsuan
    Contributors: 楊秀儀
    廖元豪

    Yang, Hsiu I
    Liao, Yuan Hao

    張濱璿
    Chang, Pin Hsuan
    Keywords: 告知後同意
    兒童
    病患自主
    醫療自主
    代理決定
    決定能力
    最佳利益
    臨終決定
    移除維生系統
    生活品質
    informed consent
    children
    patient autonomy
    surrogate decision
    decision making capacity
    competence
    best interest
    life-sustaining treatment
    withdrawal
    quality of life
    Date: 2011
    Issue Date: 2012-10-30 15:22:49 (UTC+8)
    Abstract: 因為醫病互動關係的改變,病患自主權在經過歐美數十年來的覺醒與詮釋,並定位於不論是人性尊嚴或是隱私權內涵中之憲法層級,以及在告知後同意於近二十年來引進國內並蓬勃發展之後,病患的自主決定權在現今醫療過程中已經受到相當的重視。青少年也因接近成人的年齡及成熟度,在法律及臨床實務上也逐漸肯認其對於自身的醫療決定擁有自主決定權。然而,兒童不論在法律或是社會觀念之中,均被認定為能力尚未成熟,傳統上認為必須由父母代替其做醫療決定。可是在作者身為一位臨床兒科醫師的臨床實務經驗當中,許多病童往往能表達自己對於醫療決定甚至是臨終決定的自主意見,卻不受到父母或其他成年代理人的採納。
    因此,本文將從臨床經驗出發,將所發現許多兒童有能力決定、以及父母無法做出符合兒童利益決定的案例,提出作為本文探討的思考起源。本文主要鎖定未成年人中未滿12歲的兒童進行討論,排除許多文獻早已熱烈討論的青少年人;另外因為立法例上並未賦予未成年人擁有「自主權」,故本文暫不深究兒童法律上的自主權利,而是以探討兒童實質上的「自主性」作為探討的主軸,並以此為未來法律發展的基礎。
    本文將首先從「醫病關係的演進」開始,探討一般性「病患自主決定權」之倫理與法律。醫學倫理上涉及包括「生物醫學倫理四原則」以及「告知後同意」;多數國家也將「自主決定權」在法律上定位為憲法層級之人權保障。聯合國兒童權利公約則為現今國際上兒童人權維護的重要指引,也是對於兒童一般自主權正當性的重要依據。至於兒童的自主決定與其決定能力相關,也涉及父母代理決定的討論,故從法律上對於父母子女關係及未成年人保護的討論出發,探討代理決定時的最佳利益判斷,思考兒童醫療決定的問題及衝突,以及在不同年齡適合該年齡得以決定的事項。
    在兒童醫療決定上,難題包括為何要重視兒童自主、何人有權決定、如何決定等等,在此議題受到各國重視並不斷發展之下應如何運作。在本文中主要參考了美國以及英國的發展經驗以及建議,提出對於臨床操作的看法。本文認為,可以用兒童醫療「表意權」的行使作為對兒童自主性的肯認,從兒童決定能力的判斷開始,對於具有決定能力的兒童表達其合理意見應充分尊重;若是缺乏決定能力的兒童,則在考量其最佳利益後由父母代理其做出醫療決定。醫療人員基於必須對於病童負責的角色及責任,亦應檢視父母決定是否合理,適時地介入決定以維護兒童最佳利益。
    至於在兒童的最佳利益的判斷上,除了要考慮所面對的病況以外,還需要針對兒童未來生理發育和心智發展的影響,整體考量其未來的生活品質;對於臨終的兒童,則應考量是否得到有尊嚴的死亡,此與成年人的思考並無相左。最後,本文將進一步探討較為特殊的臨床狀況,包括面對重症以及急症的病童應如何操作及思考,並重新檢視本文所提出之實際臨床困難案例,建議較為適合的做法,以作為更多臨床個案判斷的參考指引。
    Patients` awareness of self-determination has raised and their rights have been taken into account in clinical consideration because of the change of doctor-patient relationship in recent decades. The right to autonomy was highly positioned at the constitutional level no matter it is contained in the concept of human dignity or the right of privacy. It is also highly valued after “the doctrine of informed consent” was introduced into our country with vigorous development in recent years.
    Because adolescents’ age and maturity approach adults, they have been recognized to have sufficient ability and right to make their own medical decisions as well as adults. Children, in the general idea of the society, are concerned not to have sufficient decision making ability and therefore need their parents’ help to make their own medical decisions. However, from clinical experiences, many children could not only express their autonomous opinions but even have the ability to consent to their medical treatments, including life-saving treatments. Unfortunately, children’s opinions were usually ignored, and sometimes their parents could not make decisions in their best interest.
    This study will discuss the patient autonomy of children whose ages are under 12 years old. We acknowledge that children do not have legal “right” to autonomy but they still have their own autonomous expression. The ethical and legal bases of patient autonomy are firstly illustrated, including “the four principles approach to bioethics”, “the doctrine of informed consent”, the legal status of “the right to autonomy” at the constitutional level, and the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child which is an international guide to children’s human right.
    Children’s autonomy is closely related to their decision-making capacity or competence and their age. Furthermore, surrogate decision making plays an important role in children’s affairs. When there is a conflict between the parents and children, the principle of best interest of children should be the leading concern.
    Regarding the medical decision of children, difficult problems are: why children’s patient autonomy is vital, who has the right to decide, and how to make a decision. I have reviewed the experiences and suggestions from concept leading countries such as the United States and the United Kingdom. I proposed my own viewpoint and suggest some guidelines on the clinical decision process. My opinion is that children’s right to express should be taken as the confirmation of children’s autonomy. For the children with decision making capacity, we should fully respect his rational decision; for the children without it, parents could make the decisions according to the children’s best interest. Medical staffs, including doctors and nurses, also need to reexamine the parents’ decisions suitable for children’s best interest. At the end of the thesis, I re-examine the clinical cases proposed at the beginning of this thesis, to present my resolution to the cases as guides for future clinical situation.
    Reference: 一、英文部分

    (一) 英文期刊論文:

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    4. American Academy of Pediatrics, Task Force on Pediatric Research, Informed Consent, and Medical Ethics. Consent, 57 Pediatrics 414-416 (1976)
    5. American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Pediatric Emergency Medicine, Consent for Emergency Medical Services for Children and Adolescents, 92 Pediatrics 290-291 (1993)
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    (二) 英文專書:

    1. Allen E. Buchanan and Dan W. Brock. Deciding for others: the ethics of surrogate decision making. Cambridge; New York : Cambridge University Press, 1989
    2. General Medical Council, 0-18 Years: Guidance for All Doctors, UK, 2007
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    二、中文部分

    (一) 中文期刊論文:

    1. 王志嘉,論醫療上「病人自我決定權」及其刑法相關問題,東吳法研論集,第5期,2009年12月,頁53-94
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    36. 蔡顯鑫,身分行為的本質,收錄於戴東雄教授七秩華誕祝壽論文集—現代身分法之基礎理論,元照出版,2007年8月,頁297-330
    37. 劉宏恩,夫妻離婚後「子女最佳利益」之酌定—從英美法實務論我國民法親屬編新規定之適用」,軍法專刊,第43卷第12期,1997年12月,頁24-55。
    38. 劉幸義,由法學方法論角度思考「安樂死」之難題,月旦法學雜誌,第17期,1996年10月,頁87-93
    39. 劉靜怡,隱私權保障與國家權力的行使—以正當程序和個人自主性為核心,月旦法學教室,50期,2006年12月,頁39-49。
    40. 鄭哲民,美國墮胎權的爭議,收錄於:美國最高法院重要判例之研究(1990~1992),中央研究院歐美研究所,1995年6月,頁105-128
    41. 戴瑀如,從親屬法上之父母子女關係論未成年子女之醫療決定權,生物醫學雜誌,第3卷第4期,2010年12月,頁503-515
    42. 魏大喨,當然繼承主義之未成年人利益保護,收錄於「現代身份法之基礎理論」,元照出版,2007年8月初版一刷,頁407-421。

    (二) 中文書籍:

    1. 王澤鑑,民法總則,作者自版,2008年3月
    2. 王澤鑑,侵權行為法第一冊—一般侵權行為,作者自版,2008年3月
    3. 王澤鑑主編,英美法導論,元照出版,2010年7月初版
    4. 司法院編,美國聯邦最高法院憲法判決選譯第三輯,司法院出版,2002年11月
    5. 史慶璞著,美國憲法理論與實務,三民出版,2007年6月,初版一刷。
    6. 李園會編著,兒童權利公約,內政部兒童局,2000年初版
    7. 李震山著,人性尊嚴與人權保障,元照出版,2000年2月,初版一刷。
    8. 李震山著,多元、寬容與人權保障─以憲法未列舉權之保障為中心,元照出版,二版,2007 年9 月
    9. 法治斌、董保城著,憲法新論,原照出版,2008年9月,三版3刷
    10. 林鈺雄,新刑法總則,元照出版,2006年9月初版
    11. 陳棋炎、黃宗樂、郭振恭,民法親屬新論,三民出版,2003年9月
    12. 黃丁全著,醫療、法律與生命倫理,宏文館圖書出版,農學社發行,1998年初版
    13. 焦興鎧主編,美國最高法院重要判例之研究(1990~1992),中央研究院歐美研究所,1995年6月
    14. 鄧冰著,大法官的智慧:美國聯邦法院經典案例精選,五南出版,2005年,初版。
    15. 戴正德、李明濱編著,醫學倫理導論,教育部發行,2006年增訂一版
    16. 戴東雄教授七秩華誕祝壽論文集—現代身分法之基礎理論,元照出版,2007年8月初版一刷
    17. Jodi Picoult(茱迪‧皮考特)著,林淑娟譯,姊姊的守護者,臺灣商務出版,2006年初版
    18. John R. Williams著,世界醫師會醫學倫理手冊,世界醫師會授權,中華民國醫師公會全國聯合會出版,2005年11月初版
    19. Lisa Belkin(莉莎‧貝爾金)著,錢莉華譯,派屈克的生死抉擇,天下遠見出版,2007年11月初版。
    20. Peter A. Singer編著,蔡甫昌編譯,臨床生命倫理學,財團法人醫院評鑑暨醫療品質策進會出版,2003年9月初版。

    三、引用判決

    1. Bellotti v. Baird, 443 U.S. 622 (1979)
    2. Gillick v. West Norfolk & Wisbech AHA (1986) AC 112
    3. Glass v. United Kingdom WLR (61827/00)(2004)
    4. Griswold v. Connecticut, 381 U.S. 479 (1965)
    5. In re E.G., 133 Ill. 2d 98, 549 N.E.2d 322 (1989)
    6. In re Gault, 387 U.S. 1, 29-31 (1967)
    7. In re Quinlan, 70 N.J. 10, 355A.sd 647, cert denied, 429 U.S. 922 (1976)
    8. Nancy Cruzan v. Director, Missouri Dept. of Health, 497 U.S. 261 (1990)
    9. Pierce v. Society of Sisters, 268 US 510, 534-5(1925)
    10. Planned Parenthood of Central Missouri v. Danforth, 428 U.S. 52-53 (1976)
    11. Planned parenthood of southeastern Pa. v. Casey, 505 U.S. 833 (1992)
    12. Prince v. Massachusetts, 321 US 158, 64Sct 438, 88Led 645 (1944)
    13. Re R (1993) 2 FLR 757
    14. Re W(1992) 3 WLR 758
    15. Roe v. Wade, 410 U.S. 113 (1973)
    16. Salgo v. Leland Stanford Jr. University Board of Trustees. 317 P.2d 170 (Cal. 1957)
    17. Schloendorf v. Society of New York Hospital, 211 N.Y. 125, 105 N.E. 92 (1914)
    18. Vacco v. Quill, 521 U.S. 793 (1997);
    19. Washington v. Glucksberg, 521 U.S. 702 (1997)
    20. Wyatt v. Portsmouth NHS Trust (2005) EWHC 693; (2006) EWHC 319

    四、網路資料

    1. Amerian College of Surgeons, Giving your informed consent, http://www.facs.org/public_info/operation/consent.html/#srgbysrg
    2. BMA publication, 2008, Parental responsibility--Guidance from the British Medical Association, http://www.bma.org.uk/images/parentalresponsibility_tcm41-182629.pdf
    3. European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) 1950, http://www.echr.coe.int/ECHR/EN/Header/Basic+Texts/The+Convention+and+additional+protocols/The+European+Convention+on+Human+Rights/
    4. Report of Council on Ethical and Judicial Affairs, American Medical Association. Treatment Decisions for Seriously Ill Newborns (1992),http://www.ama-assn.org/resources/doc/code-medical-ethics/2215a.pdf
    5. 中央健康保險局的「全民健康保險呼吸器依賴患者整合性照護前瞻性支付方式」試辦計畫http://www.nhi.gov.tw/information/bbs_detail.aspx?menu=&menu_id=&wd_id=&bulletin_ID=1269
    6. 台大醫院研究倫理委員會行政中心,http://www.ntuh.gov.tw/RECO/DocLib1/Forms/AllItems.aspx
    7. 台灣兒科醫學會住院醫師訓練課程標準,http://www.pediatr.org.tw/member/training_class.asp
    8. 聯合國兒童基金會(UNICEF)網站:http://www.unicef.org/crc/index_protecting.html
    Description: 碩士
    國立政治大學
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