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| Title: | 美國對中國的人權外交—以《1998 國際宗教自由法》為例
US Human Rights Diplomacy to China — A Case Study of 1998 International Religious Freedom Act |
| Authors: | 黃浩瑀
Huang, Hao-Yu |
| Contributors: | 盧業中
Lu, Yeh-Chung
黃浩瑀
Huang, Hao-Yu |
| Keywords: | 人權外交
宗教自由
美中關係 |
| Date: | 2022 |
| Issue Date: | 2022-08-01 18:44:34 (UTC+8) |
| Abstract: | 近年美中競爭態勢加劇，除了在貿易戰場上的角力，美中兩國在國際上也時常以自由人權價值在外交場上交伐。從國際新聞與報告中不難發現美國針對中國各項人權問題的批評，其中包括川普時期美國副總統彭斯（Michael Pence）與國務卿龐培歐（Michael R. Pompeo）多次於新聞記者會與活動對中國宗教自由問題批判。因此，本研究試圖以宗教自由為切入點，觀察宗教自由價值如何影響美中關係。
美國國內為維護宗教自由價值在1998年國會通過《國際宗教自由法》，自法案通過以來，美國在國際上以維護宗教自由作為人權外交的一個面向，國務院宗教自由辦公室與美國宗教自由委員會針對世界各國宗教自由情況撰寫年度報告，並將嚴重迫害宗教自由國家列為特別關注國家（Country of Particular Concern, CPC）。
本研究以Moravcsik的「雙階段模型」（two-stage model）為基礎分析美國如何以《國際宗教自由法》對中國進行人權外交。雙階段模型先討論國家偏好形成，後討論國家間戰略性互動。本研究在第二章探討《國際宗教自由法》立法起源、談判過程與行政部門態度即為「雙階段模型」（two-stage model）階段一當中對國家內部偏好形成的分析，檢視宗教自由如何成為美國國家偏好。本研究接續分析自柯林頓總統以降各時期美國執政者實際對中國運用《國際宗教自由法》情形即為階段二探討國家間戰略性互動，討論宗教自由作為國家偏好下，美國如何製定與執行對中國外交政策。
最後本研究以指名（naming）、羞辱（shaming）、制裁（sanction）三項指標分析歷任美國政府實際運用《國際宗教自由法案》情況。研究發現自1998《國際宗教自由法案》通過以來的政府中，川普政府最積極使用法案，歐巴馬政府在法案運用上最為消極。 |
| Reference: | 英文資料與文獻
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Office of the Federal Register, National Archives and Records Administration. (2000c, October 12). 2000 Public Papers 2616 - Remarks on Presenting the Eleanor Roosevelt Award for Human Rights and the Presidential Medal of Freedom. [Government]. Office of the Federal Register, National Archives and Records Administration. https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/PPP-2000-book3/PPP-2000-book3-doc-pg2616
Office of the Federal Register, National Archives and Records Administration. (2001a, January 20). 2001 Public Papers 400 - Remarks on the Return of United States Navy Aircraft Crewmembers from China. [Government]. Office of the Federal Register, National Archives and Records Administration. https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/PPP-2001-book1/PPP-2001-book1-doc-pg400
Office of the Federal Register, National Archives and Records Administration. (2001c, July 1). 2001 Public Papers 1471 - Remarks at a Townhall Meeting in Orlando. [Government]. Office of the Federal Register, National Archives and Records Administration. https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/PPP-2001-book2/PPP-2001-book2-doc-pg1471
Office of the Federal Register, National Archives and Records Administration. (2001b, January 20). 2001 Public Papers 486 - Remarks to the American Jewish Committee. [Government]. Office of the Federal Register, National Archives and Records Administration. https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/PPP-2001-book1/PPP-2001-book1-doc-pg486
Office of the Federal Register, National Archives and Records Administration. (2002, January 1). 2002 Public Papers 881 - Remarks to Community and Religious Leaders in Moscow. [Government]. Office of the Federal Register, National Archives and Records Administration. https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/PPP-2002-book1/PPP-2002-book1-doc-pg881
Office of the Federal Register, National Archives and Records Administration. (2003, July 1). 2003 Public Papers 1699 - Remarks at a Welcoming Ceremony for Premier Wen Jiabao of China. [Government]. Office of the Federal Register, National Archives and Records Administration. https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/PPP-2003-book2/PPP-2003-book2-doc-pg1699-3
Office of the Federal Register, National Archives and Records Administration. (2005a, January 1). 2005 Public Papers 894 - The President`s News Conference. [Government]. Office of the Federal Register, National Archives and Records Administration. https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/PPP-2005-book1/PPP-2005-book1-doc-pg894
Office of the Federal Register, National Archives and Records Administration. (2005b, July 1). 2005 Public Papers 1748 - Remarks Following Discussions With President Hu in Beijing. [Government]. Office of the Federal Register, National Archives and Records Administration. https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/PPP-2005-book2/PPP-2005-book2-doc-pg1748
Office of the Federal Register, National Archives and Records Administration. (2008a, July 1). 2008 Public Papers 1012 - Remarks on the 10th Anniversary of the International Religious Freedom Act. [Government]. Office of the Federal Register, National Archives and Records Administration. https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/PPP-2008-book2/PPP-2008-book2-doc-pg1012
Office of the Federal Register, National Archives and Records Administration. (2008b, July 1). 2008 Public Papers 1134 - Interview with Bob Costas of NBC Sports in Beijing. [Government]. Office of the Federal Register, National Archives and Records Administration. https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/PPP-2008-book2/PPP-2008-book2-doc-pg1134
Office of the Federal Register, National Archives and Records Administration. (2014a, January 1). 2014 Public Papers 102 - Remarks at the National Prayer Breakfast. [Government]. Office of the Federal Register, National Archives and Records Administration. https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/PPP-2014-book1/PPP-2014-book1-doc-pg102
Office of the Federal Register, National Archives and Records Administration. (2015a, July 1). 2015 Public Papers 1173 - Remarks at a Welcoming Ceremony for Pope Francis. [Government]. Office of the Federal Register, National Archives and Records Administration. https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/PPP-2015-book2/PPP-2015-book2-doc-pg1173-2
Office of the Federal Register, National Archives and Records Administration. (2011a, January 1). 2011 Public Papers 27 - The President`s News Conference with President Hu Jintao of China. [Government]. Office of the Federal Register, National Archives and Records Administration. https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/PPP-2011-book1/PPP-2011-book1-doc-pg27
Office of the Federal Register, National Archives and Records Administration. (2010b, July 1). 2010 Public Papers 1407 - Remarks to the United Nations General Assembly in New York City. [Government]. Office of the Federal Register, National Archives and Records Administration. https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/PPP-2010-book2/PPP-2010-book2-doc-pg1407
Office of the Federal Register, National Archives and Records Administration. (2015b, July 1). 2015 Public Papers 1181 - The President`s News Conference With President Xi Jinping of China. [Government]. Office of the Federal Register, National Archives and Records Administration. https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/PPP-2015-book2/PPP-2015-book2-doc-pg1181
Office of the Federal Register, National Archives and Records Administration. (2014b, July 1). 2014 Public Papers 1440 - The President`s News Conference with President Xi Jinping of China in Beijing. [Government]. Office of the Federal Register, National Archives and Records Administration. https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/PPP-2014-book2/PPP-2014-book2-doc-pg1440
Office of the Federal Register, National Archives and Records Administration. (2011b, January 1). 2011 Public Papers 552 - Remarks at the Department of State. [Government]. Office of the Federal Register, National Archives and Records Administration. https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/PPP-2011-book1/PPP-2011-book1-doc-pg552
Office of the Federal Register, National Archives and Records Administration. (2009a, July 1). 2009 Public Papers 1177 - Remarks at the United States-China Strategic and Economic Dialogue. [Government]. Office of the Federal Register, National Archives and Records Administration. https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/PPP-2009-book2/PPP-2009-book2-doc-pg1177
Office of the Federal Register, National Archives and Records Administration. (2010a, July 1). 2010 Public Papers 1290 - The President`s News Conference. [Government]. Office of the Federal Register, National Archives and Records Administration. https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/PPP-2010-book2/PPP-2010-book2-doc-pg1290
Office of the Federal Register, National Archives and Records Administration. (2009c, July 1). 2009 Public Papers 1686 - Remarks at a Town Hall Meeting and a Question-and-Answer Session in Shanghai. [Government]. Office of the Federal Register, National Archives and Records Administration. https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/PPP-2009-book2/PPP-2009-book2-doc-pg1686-2
Office of the Federal Register, National Archives and Records Administration. (2009b, July 1). 2009 Public Papers 1440 - Remarks to the United Nations General Assembly in New York City. [Government]. Office of the Federal Register, National Archives and Records Administration. https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/PPP-2009-book2/PPP-2009-book2-doc-pg1440
Weber, M. A. (2021). Global Human Rights: International Religious Freedom Policy (CRS Report No. IF10803). Retrieved from Congressional Research Service website: https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/IF/IF10803
Weber, M. A. (2021). Global Human Rights: The Department of State’s Country Reports on Human Rights Practices (CRS Report No. IF10795). Retrieved from Congressional Research Service website: https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/IF/IF10795
網路資料及新聞報導
Actions - H.R.2431 - 105th Congress (1997-1998): International Religious Freedom Act of 1998. (1998, 10月 27). https://www.congress.gov/bill/105th-congress/house-bill/2431/actions
Baker, P. & Faiola, A. (2005, Nov 16). Bush pushes China on freedoms; Taiwan held up among models of liberty; Burma, N. Korea are condemned: [FINAL edition]. The Washington Post Retrieved from https://login.autorpa.lib.nccu.edu.tw/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/newspapers/bush-pushes-china-on-freedoms-taiwan-held-up/docview/409879648/se-2?accountid=10067
Chinese Nuclear Espionage: [editorial]. (1999, Mar 09). New York Times Retrieved from https://login.autorpa.lib.nccu.edu.tw/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/newspapers/chinese-nuclear-espionage/docview/431150280/se-2?accountid=10067
Denyer, S. (2017). In call to Trump, China’s Xi urges peaceful approach to North Korea tension. The Washington Post.
Eckholm, E. (1999, Mar 23). China says Los Alamos scientist gave it no secrets on warheads. New York Times Retrieved from https://login.autorpa.lib.nccu.edu.tw/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/newspapers/china-says-los-alamos-scientist-gave-no-secrets/docview/431148969/se-2?accountid=10067
Empty talk on the South China Sea?: [editorial]. (2020, Jul 28). New York Times Retrieved from https://login.autorpa.lib.nccu.edu.tw/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/newspapers/empty-talk-on-south-china-sea/docview/2427455599/se-2?accountid=10067
Faison, S. (1999, May 13). Rage at U.S. is sign of deeper issues. New York Times Retrieved from https://login.autorpa.lib.nccu.edu.tw/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/newspapers/rage-at-u-s-is-sign-deeper-issues/docview/431176498/se-2?accountid=10067
Gearan, A. (2017a). National security strategy plan paints China, Russia as U.S. competitors: In a speech Monday, Trump will present a strategy that follows his “America First” views. The Washington Post.
Gearan, A. (2017b). Trump’s pick for ambassador to China says he will work with Beijing on North Korea: Iowa Gov. Terry Branstad also promises a tough line with China on trade and human rights. The Washington Post.
Higgins, A., & Kornblut, A. E. (2009, Nov 18). In Obama`s China trip, a stark contrast with the past; the U.S. tone toward Beijing is now much more conciliatory. The Washington Post Retrieved from https://login.autorpa.lib.nccu.edu.tw/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/newspapers/obamas-china-trip-stark-contrast-with-past-u-s/docview/410334367/se-2?accountid=10067
Kessler, G. (2009, Feb 15). China is at the heart of Clinton`s first trip; Bush solidified relations; now the Obama white house will push for broader cooperation. The Washington Post Retrieved from https://login.autorpa.lib.nccu.edu.tw/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/newspapers/china-is-at-heart-clintons-first-trip-bush/docview/410336720/se-2?accountid=10067
Krauthammer, C. (2001, Jun 08). The new unilateralism. The Washington Post (1974-) Retrieved from https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/opinions/2001/06/08/the-new-unilateralism/20dcb60e-e8af-4a87-837c-e4cf85e96756/
Lewis, J. W. (2001, Jun 02). The contradictions of Bush`s China policy: [op-ed]. New York Times Retrieved from https://login.autorpa.lib.nccu.edu.tw/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/newspapers/contradictions-bushs-china-policy/docview/431790911/se-2?accountid=10067
Lynch, D. J. (2019, May 23). U.S.-China trade war is turning into a tech war. The Washington Post Retrieved from https://login.autorpa.lib.nccu.edu.tw/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/newspapers/u-s-china-trade-war-is-turning-into-tech/docview/2228987022/se-2?accountid=10067
Nakamura, D. (2014, Nov 12). A tale of U.S.-China contrasts: Obama sounds conciliatory, Xi sounds competitive. The Washington Post Retrieved from https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/a-tale-of-us-china-contrasts-obama-sounds-concilatory-xi-sounds-competitive/2014/11/12/34bc8fee-6a4a-11e4-a31c-77759fc1eacc_story.html
Nakamura, D. (2018). After detente with North Korea, Trump increasingly takes aim at a new foe — China: From a trade war to “Space Force,” the president’s competition with Beijing signals a shift toward treating China like an outright adversary. The Washington Post.
Nakamura, D., & Lamothe, D. (2016, Mar 1). China testing Obama as it expands its influence in southeast Asia. The Washington Post Retrieved from https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/china-testing-obama-as-it-expands-its-influence-in-southeast-asia/2016/03/01/d60e1248-dbdf-11e5-891a-4ed04f4213e8_story.html
Nakashima, E., & Mufson, S. (2015, Sep 26). U.S., China vow not to engage in economic cyberespionage. The Washington Post Retrieved from https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/us-china-vow-not-to-engage-in-economic-cyberespionage/2015/09/25/90e74b6a-63b9-11e5-8e9e-dce8a2a2a679_story.html
Rauhala, E. (2016). China puts new weapons on South China Sea islands, report says: U.S. think tank spots antiaircraft guns in satellite images of artificial islands. The Washington Post.
Rauhala, E., & Roth, A. (2017). China left wondering what “America First” foreign policy actually means: National security address deepens questions about Trump’s China plans. The Washington Post.
Richburg, K. B. (2011, Nov 17). U.S. pivot to Asia making China nervous. The Washington Post Retrieved from https://login.autorpa.lib.nccu.edu.tw/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/newspapers/u-s-pivot-asia-making-china-nervous/docview/904176874/se-2?accountid=10067
Rosenthal R. & Sanger, D. E. (2001, Apr 02). U.S. plane in China after it collides with Chinese jet. New York Times Retrieved from https://login.autorpa.lib.nccu.edu.tw/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/newspapers/u-s-plane-china-after-collides-with-chinese-jet/docview/431738205/se-2?accountid=10067
Rosenthal, E. (1999, Dec 16). U.S. agrees to pay China $28 million for bombing. New York Times Retrieved from https://login.autorpa.lib.nccu.edu.tw/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/newspapers/u-s-agrees-pay-china-28-million-bombing/docview/431318449/se-2?accountid=10067
Rosenthal, E. (2001, Apr 05). Beijing steps up its war of words over air collision. New York Times Retrieved from https://login.autorpa.lib.nccu.edu.tw/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/newspapers/beijing-steps-up-war-words-over-air-collision/docview/431732573/se-2?accountid=10067
Sanger, D. E. & Perlez, J. (2001, Apr 05). Powell offers China aides outline for standoff`s end. New York Times Retrieved from https://login.autorpa.lib.nccu.edu.tw/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/newspapers/powell-offers-china-aides-outline-standoffs-end/docview/431732457/se-2?accountid=10067
Sanger, D. E. (2010, Sep 24). Obama presses china to let currency rise: [foreign desk]. New York Times Retrieved from https://login.autorpa.lib.nccu.edu.tw/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/newspapers/obama-presses-china-let-currency-rise/docview/753606029/se-2?accountid=10067
Sanger, D. E., & Wong, E. (2015, May 13). As Obama plays China card on trade, Chinese pursue their own deals: [foreign desk]. New York Times Retrieved from https://login.autorpa.lib.nccu.edu.tw/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/newspapers/as-obama-plays-china-card-on-trade-chinese-pursue/docview/1680359135/se-2?accountid=10067
Seelye, K. Q. (1999, May 15). Chinese finally allow Clinton time for a telephone apology. New York Times Retrieved from https://login.autorpa.lib.nccu.edu.tw/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/newspapers/chinese-finally-allow-clinton-time-telephone/docview/431171223/se-2?accountid=10067
Shear, M. D. (2015, Nov 19). Obama presses Beijing on building in south china sea: [foreign desk]. New York Times Retrieved from https://login.autorpa.lib.nccu.edu.tw/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/newspapers/obama-presses-beijing-on-building-south-china-sea/docview/1734103296/se-2?accountid=10067
Sonne, P. (2019). As Trump escalates China trade dispute, economic ties lose stabilizing force in matters of national security: Tensions could extend beyond the trade sphere and impact other areas of contention between Washington and Beijing. The Washington Post.
Steven, L. M. (1999, May 08). NATO raid hits china embassy; Beijing cites `barbarian act`; allies admit striking hospital. New York Times Retrieved from https://login.autorpa.lib.nccu.edu.tw/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/newspapers/nato-raid-hits-china-embassy-beijing-cites/docview/431173650/se-2?accountid=10067
Tharoor, I. (2018). Under Trump, US enters a new “cold war” with China. The Washington Post.
U. S. Embassy and Consulates in China. (2018). Ministerial to Advance Religious Freedom – Statement on China. Retrieved from https://china.usembassy-china.org.cn/ministerial-to-advance-religious-freedom-statement-on-china/
UN General Assembly. (1948). "Universal declaration of human rights" (217 [III] A). Paris. Retrieved from https://www.humanrights.com.tw/course/lesson/articles-12-18/read-article-18.html
Unger, D. C. (1994, June 13). Editorial Notebook; Human Rights Diplomacy, R.I.P. The New York Times Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/1994/06/13/opinion/editorial-notebook-human-rights-diplomacy-rip.html?searchResultPosition=1
United States Commission on International Religious Freedom. (n.d.). Frequently Asked Questions. Retrieved from https://www.uscirf.gov/about-uscirf/frequently-asked-questions
Yardley, J. (2005, Nov 20). America and China: partners, if not friends. New York Times Retrieved from https://login.autorpa.lib.nccu.edu.tw/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/newspapers/america-china-partners-if-not-friends/docview/433202065/se-2?accountid=10067
中文資料與文獻
專書及專書篇章
王雲東，2018，《社會研究方法—量化與質性取向及其應用》（三版），新北市：揚智文化。
佛塞特 (Forsythe, David P.)，高德源譯，2002，《人權與國際關係》（初版），台北：弘智文化。
奈伊 (Nye, Joseph S.)，林添貴譯，2020，《強權者的道德 : 從小羅斯福到川普,十四位美國總統如何影響世界 》（初版），台北：遠見天下文化出版股份有限公司。
倪世雄，2010，《當代國際關係理論 / 倪世雄著》（二版），台北：五南圖書。
徐斯勤，2016，〈新自由主義與新自由制度主義〉，包宗和主編，《國際關係理論》，頁112-138，台北市：五南。
盧業中，2016，〈新自由主義〉，張亞中,張登及主編，《國際關係總論》，頁72-28，新北市：揚智文化。
官方文件與資料
美國政體的結構與運作. (2005, October). 美國在台協會. https://web-archive-2017.ait.org.tw/infousa/zhtw/PUBS/AmGov/federal.htm
期刊論文
王林霞(Lin-Xia Wang). (2004). 美國人權外交的源起和演變. Henan shi fan da xue xue bao. Zhe xue she hui ke xue ban, 31(2), 95–98. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1000-2359.2004.02.027
王崬興. (2005). 美國《1998年國際宗教自由法》及對中美關係的影響評析. 東南亞研究, 5, 66–32. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1008-6099.2005.05.014
李莉. (2010). 奧巴馬政府人權外交評析. Xian dai guo ji guan xi = Contemporary international relations, 2, 8–12.
辛翠玲(Chuei-Ling Shin). (2003). 從中國人權問題看國際人權團體的影響力－論非政府組織及其連結作用. 《政治科學論叢》, 19, 181–202. https://doi.org/10.6166/TJPS.19(181-202)
張訓謀. (1999). 美國《1998年國際宗教自由法案》評述. 中國宗教, 3, 31-33.
張鳳梅、郭長剛、Feng-mei, Z.、Chang-gang, G. U. O. (2015). 從“宗教自由”到“宗教接觸”：奧巴馬政府國際宗教自由政策的新轉向.《上海大学学报（社会科学版）》，第32卷第2期，頁 25-34。doi: 10.3969/j.issn1007-6522.2015.02.002
黃友義. (2012). 美國是怎樣把人權理念轉化成公共外交工具的？——評《完美的幻覺：美國政府是如何選中人權外交的》. 《公共外交季刊》, 3, 112–117.
楊建國. (2016). 再談美國人權外交的背景、實踐及評價（1977～1981）. Henan shi fan da xue xue bao. Zhe xue she hui ke xue ban, 43(1), 37–42.
謝志海. (2010). 宗教与美国的外交政策[Religion and American Foreign Policy].《太平洋学报》，第18卷第6期，頁 32-39。doi: 10.14015/1004-8049.2010.06.006
智庫研究與機構出版品
張家麟，2017，〈宗教與少數民族人權觀察〉，台灣民主基金會中國人權觀察報告：http://www.tfd.org.tw/opencms/chinese/publication/human/。檢索日期：2022/5/28。
張家麟，2018，〈宗教與少數民族人權觀察〉，台灣民主基金會中國人權觀察報告：http://www.tfd.org.tw/opencms/chinese/publication/human/。檢索日期：2022/5/28。
張家麟，2019，〈宗教及少數民族人權觀察〉，台灣民主基金會中國人權觀察報告：http://www.tfd.org.tw/opencms/chinese/publication/human/。檢索日期：2022/5/28。
張家麟，2020，〈宗教及少數民族人權觀察〉，台灣民主基金會中國人權觀察報告：http://www.tfd.org.tw/opencms/chinese/publication/human/。檢索日期：2022/5/28。
網路資料及新聞報導
王照坤，2020，〈台灣再獲邀宗教自由會議 我擬明年辦公民社會論〉，中央廣播電台：https://www.rti.org.tw/news/view/id/2084903。檢索日期：2021/5/3。
陳政一，2020，〈國際宗教自由日 蓬佩奧控中國試圖剷除所有宗教〉，中央通訊社：https://www.cna.com.tw/news/aopl/202010280008.aspx。檢索日期：2021/5/3。 |
| Description: | 碩士
國立政治大學
外交學系
108253003 |
| Source URI: | http://thesis.lib.nccu.edu.tw/record/#G0108253003 |
| Data Type: | thesis |
| DOI: | 10.6814/NCCU202200976 |
| Appears in Collections: | [外交學系] 學位論文
|
Files in This Item:
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